Sample Data

A cornerstone of modern solar flare monitoring is the multi-satellite GOES mission, which collects SXR real-time data for space weather forecasting \citep[The GOES Series Data Book,][]{GOES_R_Series_Data_Book}. The GOES mission has been continuously monitoring the Sun in SXR for over five decades, with 19 satellites launched to date. To ensure continual data coverage, at least two operational GOES satellites are always in position serving as the primary observer and the backup. This dual-satellite configuration decreases the risk of gaps in data coverage (caused by e.g., the daily eclipse of each satellite's line of sight to the Sun by the Earth, which can last up to approximately 70 minutes). Should a gap arise, continuity can be maintained by integrating the ``good quality'' flagged measurements from the primary and secondary satellites into a unified record.

The GOES XR Sensors (XRS) measure solar XR flux in two channels: the short channel (XRS-A), which covers 0.5 to 4 \AA~ with a sensitivity range of \(10^{-9}\) to \(10^{-3}\) Wm\(^{-2}\) (3 to 25 keV), and the long channel (XRS-B), spanning 1 to 8 \AA~ with a sensitivity range of \(10^{-8}\) to \(10^{-3}\) Wm\(^{-2}\) (1.5 to 12.4 keV). Each channel has two irradiance sensors: low irradiance sensors (XRS-A1 and XRS-B1) for measuring low SXR fluxes, and high irradiance sensors (XRS-A2 and XRS-B2) for measuring high SXR fluxes and approximately locating flares on the solar disk. The A1 and B1 channels are designed to measure solar activity during periods of solar minimum. At any moment, one of the A sensors and one of the B sensors are chosen as the main channels based on the measured light levels and a switching threshold. Data from both channels are available at a temporal resolution of 1s and as one-minute averages.

Generally, two types of GOES data are available: operational products used by the Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC) and science-quality data. According to the NOAA guidelines, science-quality data should be used when available. This preference is due to the inclusion of recovered missing data in SWPC real-time operational products, accurate time stamps, high-time-resolution data, one-minute and daily average irradiances, quality flags, flare lists, event summaries, flare location information, and corrections for previously applied SWPC scaling factors. Science-quality data is now available for the most recent satellites. The specific caveats applying to the data are detailed in \cite{GOES8_15_XRS_Readme, GOES_R_EXIS_XRS_Readme, Hudson_2024, Janssens2025}. To access the data and find out which data sets have been reprocessed to date, visit \url{https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/satellite/goes-r.htm}.

In this study, we examine the period from 01 January 2018 to 22 August 2025, during which the GOES-R series have been operational, providing data in true physical units of Wm\(^{-2}\). On the eastern side, GOES-16 served as the primary satellite until its replacement by GOES-19 in April 2025. On the western side, GOES-17 was the primary satellite from February 2019 until January 2023, after which GOES-18 assumed that role.